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The
Birth of the Republic
The
War of independence
Diplomacy and Fighting
The Indonesian Question in the United
Nations
World Recognition and Indonesia's Sovereignty
The Unitary State of the Republic of
Indonesia
Challenges to " Unitary State"
The Asian-African Conference
The
Republic of Indonesia first saw light on August 17,
1945, when its independence was proclaimed just days
after the Japanese surrender to the Allies. Pancasila
became the ideological and philosophical basis of
the Republic, and on August 18, 1945 the Constitution
was adopted as the basic law of the country. Following
the provisions of the Constitution, the country is
headed by a President who is also the Chief Executive.
He is assisted by a Vice-President and a cabinet of
ministers.
The sovereignty of the people rests with the People's
Consultative Assembly (MPR). Hence, the President
is accountable to the MPR. The legislative power is
vested in the House of Representatives (DPR). Other
institutions of the state are the Supreme Court, the
Supreme Advisory Council and the Supreme Audit Board.
Soekarno became the first President and Chief Executive,
and Mohammad Hatta, the first Vice-President of the
Republic. On September 5, 1945 the first cabinet was
formed.
The
War of Independence
The
infant republic was soon faced with military threats
to its very existence. British troops landed in Indonesia
as a contingent of the Allied Forces to disarm the
Japanese. Dutch troops also seized this opportunity
to land in the country, but for a different purpose,
- namely, to regain control of the former East Indies.
At the beginning they were assisted by British troops
under General Christison, a fact later admitted by
Lord Louis Mountbatten, the Commander of the Allied
Forces in Southeast Asia based in Myanmar. In fact,
the British troops were officially only assigned to
the task of repatriating Allied prisoners of war and
internees.
On November 10, 1945, fierce fighting broke out between
British troops and Indonesian freedom fighters in
which the British lost Brigadier Mallaby. As a result,
the British turned to all-out combat from the sea,
air and land. The newly recruited army of the Republic
soon realized the superiority of the British forces
and withdrew from urban battles. They subsequently
formed guerrilla units and fought together with armed
groups of the people.
Under the pretext of representing the Allied Forces,
the Dutch sent in more troops to attack Indonesian
strongholds. Between 1945 and 1949 they undertook
two military actions.
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Diplomacy
and Fighting
Meanwhile,
on November 11, 1945, Vice-President Hatta issued
a manifesto that outlined the basic policy of the
new Republic. It was a policy of good neighborhood
and peace 22 with the rest of the world. On November
14 of the same year, the newly appointed Prime Minister,
Sutan Syahrir, introduced a parliamentary system,
with party representation, in the Republic. On December
22, Sutan Syahrir announced Indonesia's acceptance
of the British proposal to disarm and confine to internment
camps 25,000 Japanese troops throughout the country.
This task was successfully carried out by TNI, the
Indonesian National Army.
Repatriation of the Japanese troops began on April
28, 1946.Because fighting with Dutch troops continued,
the seat of the Republican Government was moved from
Jakarta to Yogyakarta on January 4, 1946.
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The
Indonesian Question in the United Nations
The
war in Indonesia posed a threat to international peace
and security. In the spirit of article 24 of the United
Nations' Charter, the question of Indonesia was officially
brought before the Security Council by Jacob Malik
of the Soviet Unions. Soon afterwards, on February
10, 1946, the first official meeting of Indonesian
and Dutch representatives took place under the chairmanship
of Sir Archibald Clark Kerr.
But the freedom fight continued and Dutch military
aggressions met with stiff resistance from Indonesian
troops. The Indonesian Government conducted a diplomatic
offensive against the Dutch. With the good offices
of Lord Killearn of Great Britain, Indonesian and
Dutch representatives met at Linggarjati in West Java.
The negotiations resulted in the de facto recognition
by the Dutch of lndonesia's sovereignty over Java,
Sumatra and Madura. The Linggarjati Agreement was
initiated on November 1946 and signed on March 25,
1947.
But the agreement was a violation of Indonesia's independence
proclamation of August 17, 19A5, which implied sovereignty
over the whole territory of the Republic. As such,
it met with the widespread disapproval of the people.
Hence, guerrilla fighting continued, bringing heavy
pressure on Dutch troops. In July 1947 the Dutch launched
a military offensive to reinforce their urban bases
and to intensify their attacks on guerrilla strongholds.
The offensive was, however, put to end by the signing
of the Renville Agreement on January 17, 1948. The
negotiation was initiated by India and Australia and
took place under the auspices of the UN Security Council.
It was during these critical moments that the Indonesian
Communist Party (PKI) stabbed the newly- proclaimed
Republic of Indonesia in the back by declaring the
formation of the "Indonesian People's Republic"
in Madiun, East Java. Muso led an attempt to overthrow
the Government, but this was quickly stamped out and
he was killed. In violation of the Renville agreement,
on December 19, 1948, the Dutch launched their second
military aggression. They invaded the Republic capital
of Yogyakarta, arrested President Soekarno, Vice-President
Mohammad Hatta and other leaders, and detained them
on the island of Bangka, off the east coast of Sumatra.
A caretaker Government, with headquarters in Bukittinggi,
West Sumatra, was set up under Syafruddin Prawiranegara.
On the initiative of Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru of India,
a meeting of 19 nations was convened in New Delhi
that produced a resolution for submission to the United
Nations, pressing for total Dutch surrender of sovereignty
to the Republic of Indonesia by January 1, 1950. It
also pressed for the release of all Indonesian detainees
and the return of territories seized during the military
actions. On January 28, 1949, the UN Security Council
adopted a resolution to establish a cease-fire, the
release of Republican leaders and their Yogyakarta.
The Dutch, however, were adamant and continued to
occupy the city of Yogyakarta in ignorance of the
Republican Government and the National Army. They
deliberately issued a false statement to the world
that the Government and the army of the Republic of
Indonesia no longer existed.
To prove that the Dutch claim was a mere fabrication,
Lieutenant Colonel Soeharto, led an all-out attack
on the Dutch troops in Yogyakarta on March 1, 1949,
and occupied the city for several hours. This offensive
is recorded in lndonesia's history as "the first
of March all-out attack" to show to the world
at the time that the Republic and its military were
not dead. Consequently, on May 7, 1949, an agreement
was signed by Mohammad Roem of Indonesia and Van Rooyen
of the Netherlands, to end hostilities, restore the
Republican Government in Yogyakarta, and to hold further
negotiations at a round table conference under the
auspices of the United Nations.
World Recognition and Indonesia's Sovereignty
The
Round Table conference was opened in The Hague on
August 23, 1949, under the auspices of the UN. It
was concluded on November 2 with an agreement that
Holland was to recognize the sovereignty of the Republic
of Indonesia. On December 27, 1949 the Dutch East
Indies ceased to exist. It now became the sovereign
Federal Republic of Indonesia with a federal constitution.
The constitution, inter alia, provided for a parliamentary
system in which the cabinet was responsible to Parliament.
The question of sovereignty over Irian Jaya, formerly
West New Guinea, was suspended for further negotiations
between Indonesia and the Netherlands. This issue
remained a perpetual source of conflict between the
two countries for more than 13 years. On September
28, 1950, Indonesia became a member of the United
Nations.
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World
Recognition and Indonesia's Sovereignty
The
Round Table conference was opened in The Hague on
August 23, 1949, under the auspices of the UN. It
was concluded on November 2 with an agreement that
Holland was to recognize the sovereignty of the Republic
of Indonesia. On December 27, 1949 the Dutch East
Indies ceased to exist. It now became the sovereign
Federal Republic of Indonesia with a federal constitution.
The constitution, inter alia, provided for a parliamentary
system in which the cabinet was responsible to Parliament.
The question of sovereignty over Irian Jaya, formerly
West New Guinea, was suspended for further negotiations
between Indonesia and the Netherlands. This issue
remained a perpetual source of conflict between the
two countries for more than 13 years. On September
28, 1950, Indonesia became a member of the United
Nations.
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The
Unitary State of the Republic of Indonesia
On
August 17, 1950 the Unitary State of the Republic
on Indonesia, as originally proclaimed, was restored.
However, the liberal democratic system of government
was retained whereby the cabinet would be accountable
to the House of Representatives. This was a source
of political instability with frequent changes in
government.
In the absence of a stable government, it was utterly
impossible for a newly independent state to embark
on any development program. With the return of the
unitary state, the President once again assumed the
duties of Chief Executive and the Mandatory of the
Provisional People's Consultative Assembly. He is
assisted by a Vice-President and a cabinet of his
own choosing. The Executive is not responsible to
the House of Representatives.
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Challenges to " Unitary
State"
The
philosophy behind the Unitary State was that a pluralistic
country like Indonesia could only be independent and
strong if it was firmly united and integrated. This
was obviously the answer to the Dutch colonial practice
of divide and rule. Hence, the national motto was
"Bhinneka Tunggal Ika" as referred to earlier.
However, no sooner was the Unitary State re-established
then it had to face numerous armed rebellions. The
Darul Islam rebels under Kartosuwiryo terrorized the
countryside of West Java in their move to establish
an Islamic State. It took years to stamp them out.
Then there was the terrorist APRA band of former Dutch
army captain Turco Westerling, which claimed the lives
of thousands of innocent people.
Outside Java, demobilized ex-colonial arm men who
remained loyal to the Dutch crown, staged a revolt
and proclaimed what they called "the Republic
of South Maluku". In South Sulawesi an ex-colonial
army officer, Andi Aziz, also rebelled. In Kalimantan
lbnu Hadjar lead another armed revolt. Sumatra could
also account for a number of separatist movements.
And, to complete the list, the Indonesian Communist
Party again staged an abortive coup under the name
of 30th September movement, when they kidnapped and
killed six of the country's top army generals in the
early hours of October 1, 1965.
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The
Asian-African Conference
President
Soekarno had to his credit the holding of the Asian-African
Conference in Bandung, West Java, from April 1 8 to
24, 1955. The initiative was taken by Indonesia, India,
Pakistan, Myanmar and Ceylon (Sri Lanka). The conference
was attended by delegates from 24 Asian and African
countries. The purpose of the meeting was to promote
closer and amiable cooperation in the economic, cultural
and political fields. The resolution adopted became
known as the "Dasa Sila", or "The Ten
Principles," of Bandung. It strives for world
peace, respect for one another's sovereignty and territorial
integrity, and for non-interference in each other's
internal affairs. The resolution also seeks to uphold
the human rights principles of the United Nations.
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